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Copper (Cu)

Stable isotopes of copper available from ISOFLEX

Isotope Z(p) N(n) Atomic Mass Natural Abundance Enrichment Level Chemical Form
Cu-63  29  34  62.929601 69.17%  99.90%  Metal
Cu-63 29 34 62.929601 69.17% 99.90% Oxide
Cu-65  29  36  64.927794 30.83%  89.70-99.00%  Metal
Cu-65 29 36 64.927794 30.83% 89.70-99.00% Oxide

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Cu

The discovery of copper dates from prehistoric times. There are reports that copper beads dating to 9000 BC have been found in Iraq. Techniques for refining copper from its ore were discovered around 5000 BC, and it was used in pottery in North Africa by about 4000 BC. Part of the reason it was used so early is that it is relatively easy to shape, although it is too soft to be used in most tools. When combined with other metals, the resulting alloys are harder than copper — bronze, for example, which is a mixture of copper and tin. Copper's name derives from the Latin word cuprum, meaning “the island of Cyprus.”

Copper has a distinctive reddish-brown color; it is ductile and has a face-centered cubic crystal. It is insoluble in water and dissolves in nitric acid and hot sulfuric acid; it is slightly soluble in hydrochloric acid and is soluble in ammonium hydroxide, ammonium carbonate and potassium cyanide solutions. Copper is more resistant to atmospheric corrosion than iron, forming a green layer of hydrated basic carbonate. Heating the metal in dry air or oxygen yields black copper(II) oxide, which on further heating at high temperatures converts to the red cuprous form. Copper(II) ion readily forms complexes with various ligands. It forms a deep blue solution in aqueous ammonia.

The metal, its compounds and its alloys have numerous applications in every sphere of life, making it one of the most important metals. Almost all coinages in the world are made out of copper or its alloys. The metal is an excellent conductor of electricity and heat and is used in electric wiring, switches and electrodes. Other applications include plumbing, piping, roofing, cooking utensils, construction materials and electroplated protective coatings. 

Although the toxicity of metallic copper is very low, many copper(II) salts may have varying degrees of toxicity. Inhalation of dusts, mists or fumes of the metal can cause nasal perforation, cough, dry throat, muscle ache, chills and “metal fever.” Copper in trace amounts is a nutritional requirement, however, used metabolically in plant and animal enzymes and other biological molecules.

Properties of Copper

Name Copper 
Symbol Cu 
Atomic number 29 
Atomic weight 63.546 
Standard state Solid at 298 °K 
CAS Registry ID 7440-50-8 
Group in periodic table 11 
Group name Coinage metal 
Period in periodic table 4 
Block in periodic table d-block 
Color Copper, metallic 
Classification Metallic 
Melting point 1083.4 °C
Boiling point 2567 °C
Thermal conductivity 401 W/(m·K) at 298.2 °K
Electrical resistivity 1.678 µΩ·cm at 20 °C 
Electronegativity 1.9 
Specific heat 0.386 c in J/g·K at 20 °C
Heat of vaporization 300 kJ·mol-1
Heat of fusion 13.1 kJ·mol-1
Density of solid 8.92 g/cm3
Electron configuration [Ar]3d104s1 (electron configuration of Cu+ [Ar]3d10 and Cu2+ [Ar]3d9)
Oxidation states +1 or +2 

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Titanium (Ti)

Stable isotopes of titanium available from ISOFLEX

Isotope Z(p) N(n) Atomic Mass Natural Abundance Enrichment Level Chemical Form
Ti-46  22  24  45.952629 8.25%  97.00% Oxide
Ti-47  22  25  46.951764 7.44%  >95.00% Oxide
Ti-48  22  26  47.947947 73.72%  >96.00% Oxide
Ti-49  22  27  48.947871 5.41%  47.60-92.40% Oxide
Ti-50  22  28  49.944792 5.18%  83.00% Oxide

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Ti

Titanium was discovered in 1791 by Reverend William Gregor, who recognized the presence of the element in menachanite, a mineral named after Menaccan in Cornwall, England. It takes its name from the Titans, the sons of Gaia, the Earth goddess in Greek mythology.

A white lustrous metal that is ductile when free of oxygen, titanium is also a low-density, high-strength metal, as strong as steel but 45% lighter. It has two allotropic modifications. The alpha form has a close-packed hexagonal crystal structure, a density of 4.54 g/cm3 at 20 ºC, and is stable up to 882 ºC. It converts very slowly to a body-centered cubic beta form at 882 ºC. The density of the beta form is 4.40 g/cm3 at an estimated 900 ºC.

Titanium metal is highly resistant to corrosion. It is unaffected by atmospheric air, moisture and sea water, allowing many of its industrial applications. The metal burns incandescently in air at about 1200 ºC, forming titanium dioxide. The metal also burns on contact with liquid oxygen. It combines with nitrogen at about 800 ºC, forming the nitride and producing heat and light. Titanium reacts with all halogens at high temperatures. It is soluble in hot concentrated sulfuric acid, forming sulfate, and with hydrofluoric acid, forming fluoride.

Elemental titanium is found in plants, animals, eggs and milk. Its alloys have wide industrial applications, as they possess high tensile strength, are lightweight, and can withstand extreme temperatures. They are often used in the construction of aircraft and missiles. They have also been used in medical prostheses, orthopedic and dental implants, dental and endodontic instruments and files, dental implants, jewelry and mobile phones.

Properties of Titanium

Name Titanium 
Symbol Ti 
Atomic number 22 
Atomic weight 47.867 
Standard state Solid at 298 °K
CAS Registry ID 7440-32-6 
Group in periodic table 4 
Group name None 
Period in periodic table 4 
Block in periodic table d-block 
Color Silvery metallic 
Classification Metallic 
Melting point 1610 +/- 10 °C
Boiling point 3287 °C
Thermal conductivity 21.9 W/(m·K) at 298.2 °K
Electrical resistivity 42.0 µΩ·cm at 20 °C 
Electronegativity 1.5 
Specific heat 0.54 kJ/kg K
Heat of vaporization 425 kJ·mol-1
Heat of fusion 18.7 kJ·mol-1
Density of solid 4.54 g/cm3
Electron configuration [Ar]3d24s2 
Atomic radius 1.47 Å 
Ionic radius Ti3+: 0.67 Å and Ti4+: 0.61 Å (coordination number 6)
Oxidation states  +2, +3, +4 

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Vanadium (V)

Stable isotopes of vanadium available from ISOFLEX

Isotope Z(p) N(n) Atomic Mass Natural Abundance Enrichment Level Chemical Form
V-50  23  27  49.947163 0.25%  >55.00% Oxide
V-51  23  28  50.943964 99.75%  >99.90% Oxide

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V

Vanadium was discovered in 1801 by both Manuel del Rio and Nils Sefström. Its name derives from that of Vanadis, the goddess of beauty in Scandinavian mythology.

Vanadium is a bright, silvery-white, ductile solid with a body-centered cubic structure. It is insoluble in water, dilute sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid and alkalis. It is resistant to corrosion but soluble in nitric, hydrofluoric and concentrated sulfuric acids. It can act as either a metal or a nonmetal, and it forms a variety of complex compounds and is nontoxic as metal.

Vanadium forms four oxides: the light gray monoxide, VO; the blue-black dioxide, VO2; the black sesquioxide, V2O3; and the orange-red pentoxide, V2O5. It also combines with chlorine on heating, producing three known chlorides: the green dichloride, VCl2; the pink trichloride, VCl3; and the brown-red tetrachloride, VCl4.

Among its industrial applications, vanadium is added to steel for high resistance to oxidation and to stabilize carbide. The foil is used for cladding titanium to steel, and a vanadium-gallium alloy is used in making superconductive magnets.

Properties of Vanadium

Name Vanadium 
Symbol V 
Atomic number 23 
Atomic weight 50.9415 
Standard state Solid at 298 °K 
CAS Registry ID 7440-62-2 
Group in periodic table 5 
Group name None 
Period in periodic table 4 
Block in periodic table d-block 
Color Silvery gray metallic 
Classification Metallic 
Melting point 1910 °C
Boiling point 3380 °C
Vaporization point 3407 °C
Thermal conductivity 30.7 W/(m·K) at 298.2 °K
Electrical resistivity 18.1 µΩ·cm at 0 °C 
Electronegativity 1.6
Specific heat 0.39 kJ/kg K 
Heat of vaporization 453 kJ·mol-1
Heat of fusion 22.8 kJ·mol-1
Density of solid 5.96 g/cm3
Electron configuration [Ar] 3d34s2 
Atomic radius 1.34 Å 
Ionic radius V2+: 0.79 Å, V3+: 0.64 Å, V4+: 0.58 Å,
and V5+: 0.54 Å (coordination number 6)
Oxidation states  +2, +3, +4, +5 

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Chromium (Cr)

Stable isotopes of chromium available from ISOFLEX

Isotope Z(p) N(n) Atomic Mass Natural Abundance Enrichment Level Chemical Form
Cr-50  24  26  49.946049 4.35%  96.50-99.70%  Metal
Cr-50 24 26 49.946049 4.35% 94.50-99.70% Oxide
Cr-52  24  28  51.940512 83.79%  ≥98.80% Metal
Cr-52 24 28 51.940512 83.79% ≥98.80% Oxide
Cr-53  24  29  52.940653 9.50%  92.80-97.70%  Metal
Cr-53 24 29 52.940653 9.50% 92.80-97.70% Oxide
Cr-54  24  30  53.938885 2.36%  >99.00%  Metal
Cr-54 24 30 53.938885 2.36% >99.00% Oxide

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Cr

Chromium was discovered in 1797 by Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin. It is named for the Greek word chroma, meaning "color," signifying the strong and varied colors of chromium compounds.

Chromium is a hard, brittle, blue-white metal, with a body-centered cubic crystal. It exists in active and passive forms, the latter giving rise to its corrosion resistance due to a thin surface oxide layer that passivates the metal when treated with oxidizing agents. The active form reacts readily with dilute acids to form chromous salts. It is soluble in acids (except nitric) and strong alkalis, but insoluble in water.

Elemental chromium reacts with anhydrous halogens, hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen chloride, forming the corresponding chromium halides. At elevated temperatures in the 600-700 ºC range, chromium reacts with hydrogen sulfide or sulfur vapor, forming chromium sulfides. Chromium metal reacts at 600-700 ºC with sulfur dioxide and caustic alkalis. It combines with phosphorus at 800 ºC. Reaction with ammonia at 850 ºC produces chromium nitride. Reaction with nitric oxide forms chromium nitride and chromium oxide.

The most important application of chromium is in the production of steel. High-carbon and other grades of ferro-chromium alloys are added to steel to improve mechanical properties, to increase hardening and to enhance corrosion resistance. Chromium also is added to cobalt- and nickel-based alloys for the same purposes. Refractory bricks are composed of chromium oxides and are used in roofs of open hearths, sidewalls of electric furnaces, vacuum apparati and copper converters. Chromium coatings are applied on the surfaces of other metals — for decorative purposes, to enhance resistance, and to lower the coefficient of friction. Radioactive Chromium-51 is used as a tracer in the diagnosis of blood volume.

Hexavalent chromium compounds have an irritating and corrosive effect on human tissue, resulting in ulcers and dermatitis on prolonged contact. Tolerance for chromium dust and fume is 0.5 mg/m3 of air. Hexavalent chromium is also a known carcinogen and is moderately toxic and corrosive to skin. Inhalation of Cr6+ dust or mist can cause perforation of the nasal septum, lung irritation, and congestion of the respiratory tract.

Properties of Chromium

Name Chromium 
Symbol Cr 
Atomic number 24 
Atomic weight 51.996 
Standard state Solid at 298 °K 
CAS Registry ID 7440-47-3 
Group in periodic table 6 
Group name None 
Period in periodic table 4 
Block in periodic table d-block 
Color Silvery metallic 
Classification Metallic 
Melting point 1875 °C
Boiling point 2672 °C
Thermal conductivity 93.9 W/(m·K) at 298.2 °K
Electrical resistivity 12.9 µΩ·cm at 0 °C 
Electronegativity 1.6 
Specific heat 448 J/kg K
Heat of vaporization 339 kJ·mol-1
Heat of fusion 20.5 kJ·mol-1
Density of solid  7.14 g/cm3
Electron configuration [Ar]3d54s1 
Atomic radius 1.27 Å 
Oxidation states  -2, -1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6

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Manganese (Mn)

Stable Isotopes of Manganese

Isotope Z(p) N(n) Atomic Mass Natural Abundance Nuclear Spin
 Mn-55 25 30  54.938049 100.00%  5/2- 

Mn

Manganese was discovered in 1774 by Johann Gahn. Its name originates with the Latin word magnes, meaning "magnet," or magnesia nigri, meaning "black magnesia."

There are four allotropic forms of manganese: The alpha form has a cubic crystal structure and a density of 7.43 g/cm3 and is brittle. It transforms to beta form at 720 ºC. Beta manganese is brittle and has a cubic lattice structure with a density of 7.29 g/cm3 and transforms to gamma form at 1100 ºC, or back to alpha form on cooling. The gamma form exists as a face-centered cubic crystal with a density of 7.18 g/cm3 and converts to the delta form at 1136 ºC. Delta manganese consists of body-centered cubic crystals with a density of 6.30 g/cm3 and is stable up to 1244 ºC, above which it melts to liquid.

Manganese decomposes in water and dissolves readily in dilute mineral acids. Many chemical properties of manganese are similar to those of iron. Manganese burns in air or oxygen at elevated temperatures, forming trimanganese tetroxide. Reactions with concentrated acids are slow at room temperature but rapid when heated. No hydrogen forms in concentrated acids, but sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide form with concentrated sulfuric and nitric acids. Manganese combines with several metals at elevated temperatures, forming binary compounds in varying compositions.

Manganese is distributed broadly in nature — mostly as oxide, silicate, and carbonate ores — and does not occur naturally in its native form. Manganese is used widely in industry, most importantly in ferrous metallurgy. It is also used in chemical, electrochemical, food and pharmaceutical applications. Almost all aluminum and magnesium alloys contain manganese. It is an essential element for all plants and animals; its shortage in soil can cause chlorosis, or lack of chlorophyll, in plants. Its shortage in animals can cause bone deformities. In chemical industries, manganese is used to prepare several compounds. It is also used as a catalyst. Its salts have numerous applications in oxidation, catalysis and medicine.

Properties of Manganese

Name Manganese 
Symbol Mn 
Atomic number 25 
Atomic weight 54.938 
Standard state Solid at 298 °K 
CAS Registry ID 7439-96-5 
Group in periodic table 7 
Group name None 
Period in periodic table 4 
Block in periodic table d-block 
Color Silvery metallic 
Classification Metallic 
Melting point 1244 °C
Boiling point 1962 °C
Thermal conductivity 7.81 W/(m·K) at 298.2 °K
Electrical resistivity 185.0 µΩ·cm at 25 °C 
Electronegativity 1.5 
Specific heat

0.48 kJ/kg K
Heat of vaporization 220 kJ·mol-1
Heat of fusion 13.2 kJ·mol-1
Density of solid 7.21-7.44 g/cm3
Electron configuration [Ar]4s23d7
Atomic radius 1.27 Å 
Oxidation states  0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7 
Most common oxidation states  +2, +4, +7

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