PTelements

Iron (Fe)

Stable isotopes of iron available from ISOFLEX

Isotope Z(p) N(n) Atomic Mass Natural Abundance Enrichment Level Chemical Form
Fe-54  26  28  53.939613 5.85%  94.30-99.90% Metal
Fe-54 26 28 53.939613 5.85% >99.80% Oxide
Fe-56  26  30  55.934941 91.75%  ≥99.90%  Metal
Fe-56 26 30 55.934941 91.75% ≥99.70% Oxide
Fe-57  26  31  56.935398 2.12%  >95.00%  Metal 
Fe-57 26 31 56.935398 2.12% >95.00% Oxide
Fe-58  26  32  57.933280 0.28%  92.80-99.80%  Metal 
Fe-58 26 32 57.933280 0.28% 92.80-99.80% Oxide

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Fe

Iron has been known since prehistoric times. Genesis says that Tubal-Cain, seven generations from Adam, was “an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron.” Smelted iron artifacts have been identified from as early as 3000 BC. The name “iron” derives from the Anglo-Saxon word iron or iren, and the symbol Fe comes from the Latin word ferrum, meaning “iron.”

Iron is a soft, white, ductile metal, and the fourth most abundant element in earth’s crust. It is the only metal that can be tempered. Its body-centered cubic form is stable to 910 ºC; from 910 ºC to 1390 ºC it has a face-centered cubic form; and above 1390 ºC it returns to the body-centered form. Its mechanical properties are altered by impurities, especially carbon. Iron is highly reactive chemically, it is a strong reducing agent, and it oxidizes readily in moist air and reacts with steam when hot to yield hydrogen and iron oxides. It is attracted by magnets and rapidly loses its magnetism. It is ferromagnetic at ordinary temperatures but becomes paramagnetic when heated to its Curie point of 768 ºC.

Iron exhibits single-replacement reactions, precipitating less electropositive metals out of their salt solutions. Thus, solid iron can reduce many metals, such as copper, silver, gold, mercury, tin and nickel. Solid iron undergoes rusting by reacting with oxygen in the presence of water; in moist air, it rapidly converts to rust.

Iron occurs in every mammalian cell and is vital for life processes. It is bound to various proteins and is found in blood tissues. Industrial uses of iron as carbon steels are numerous, surpassing the uses of any other alloys (carbon steels are alloys of iron containing carbon in varying proportions). Non-steel iron alloys such as cast iron, wrought iron, nickel iron and silicon iron have many important applications as well. Another important application of iron is as an industrial catalyst: it is used in catalyst compositions in the Haber process for synthesis of ammonia, and in the Fischer-Tropsch process for producing synthetic gasoline.

Properties of Iron

Name Iron 
Symbol Fe 
Atomic number 26 
Atomic weight 55.847 
Standard state Solid at 298 °K 
CAS Registry ID 7439-89-6 
Group in periodic table 8 
Group name None 
Period in periodic table 4 
Block in periodic table d-block 
Color Lustrous, metallic, grayish tinge 
Classification Metallic 
Melting point 1535 °C
Boiling point 2750 °C
Thermal conductivity 79.5 W/(m·K)
Electrical resistivity 4.71 µΩ·cm at 0 °C 
Electronegativity 1.83 
Heat of vaporization 347 kJ·mol-1 at 2750 °C
Heat of fusion 13.8 kJ·mol-1
Density of liquid 7.00 g/cm3 at 1564 ºF
Density of solid 7.873 g/cm3
Electron configuration [Ar]3d64s2
Atomic radius 1.24 Å 
Most common oxidation states  +2, +3 
Other oxidation states  -1, 0, +1, +4, +6  

 

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Copper (Cu)

Stable isotopes of copper available from ISOFLEX

Isotope Z(p) N(n) Atomic Mass Natural Abundance Enrichment Level Chemical Form
Cu-63  29  34  62.929601 69.17%  99.90%  Metal
Cu-63 29 34 62.929601 69.17% 99.90% Oxide
Cu-65  29  36  64.927794 30.83%  89.70-99.00%  Metal
Cu-65 29 36 64.927794 30.83% 89.70-99.00% Oxide

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Cu

The discovery of copper dates from prehistoric times. There are reports that copper beads dating to 9000 BC have been found in Iraq. Techniques for refining copper from its ore were discovered around 5000 BC, and it was used in pottery in North Africa by about 4000 BC. Part of the reason it was used so early is that it is relatively easy to shape, although it is too soft to be used in most tools. When combined with other metals, the resulting alloys are harder than copper — bronze, for example, which is a mixture of copper and tin. Copper's name derives from the Latin word cuprum, meaning “the island of Cyprus.”

Copper has a distinctive reddish-brown color; it is ductile and has a face-centered cubic crystal. It is insoluble in water and dissolves in nitric acid and hot sulfuric acid; it is slightly soluble in hydrochloric acid and is soluble in ammonium hydroxide, ammonium carbonate and potassium cyanide solutions. Copper is more resistant to atmospheric corrosion than iron, forming a green layer of hydrated basic carbonate. Heating the metal in dry air or oxygen yields black copper(II) oxide, which on further heating at high temperatures converts to the red cuprous form. Copper(II) ion readily forms complexes with various ligands. It forms a deep blue solution in aqueous ammonia.

The metal, its compounds and its alloys have numerous applications in every sphere of life, making it one of the most important metals. Almost all coinages in the world are made out of copper or its alloys. The metal is an excellent conductor of electricity and heat and is used in electric wiring, switches and electrodes. Other applications include plumbing, piping, roofing, cooking utensils, construction materials and electroplated protective coatings. 

Although the toxicity of metallic copper is very low, many copper(II) salts may have varying degrees of toxicity. Inhalation of dusts, mists or fumes of the metal can cause nasal perforation, cough, dry throat, muscle ache, chills and “metal fever.” Copper in trace amounts is a nutritional requirement, however, used metabolically in plant and animal enzymes and other biological molecules.

Properties of Copper

Name Copper 
Symbol Cu 
Atomic number 29 
Atomic weight 63.546 
Standard state Solid at 298 °K 
CAS Registry ID 7440-50-8 
Group in periodic table 11 
Group name Coinage metal 
Period in periodic table 4 
Block in periodic table d-block 
Color Copper, metallic 
Classification Metallic 
Melting point 1083.4 °C
Boiling point 2567 °C
Thermal conductivity 401 W/(m·K) at 298.2 °K
Electrical resistivity 1.678 µΩ·cm at 20 °C 
Electronegativity 1.9 
Specific heat 0.386 c in J/g·K at 20 °C
Heat of vaporization 300 kJ·mol-1
Heat of fusion 13.1 kJ·mol-1
Density of solid 8.92 g/cm3
Electron configuration [Ar]3d104s1 (electron configuration of Cu+ [Ar]3d10 and Cu2+ [Ar]3d9)
Oxidation states +1 or +2 

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Titanium (Ti)

Stable isotopes of titanium available from ISOFLEX

Isotope Z(p) N(n) Atomic Mass Natural Abundance Enrichment Level Chemical Form
Ti-46  22  24  45.952629 8.25%  97.00% Oxide
Ti-47  22  25  46.951764 7.44%  >95.00% Oxide
Ti-48  22  26  47.947947 73.72%  >96.00% Oxide
Ti-49  22  27  48.947871 5.41%  47.60-92.40% Oxide
Ti-50  22  28  49.944792 5.18%  83.00% Oxide

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Ti

Titanium was discovered in 1791 by Reverend William Gregor, who recognized the presence of the element in menachanite, a mineral named after Menaccan in Cornwall, England. It takes its name from the Titans, the sons of Gaia, the Earth goddess in Greek mythology.

A white lustrous metal that is ductile when free of oxygen, titanium is also a low-density, high-strength metal, as strong as steel but 45% lighter. It has two allotropic modifications. The alpha form has a close-packed hexagonal crystal structure, a density of 4.54 g/cm3 at 20 ºC, and is stable up to 882 ºC. It converts very slowly to a body-centered cubic beta form at 882 ºC. The density of the beta form is 4.40 g/cm3 at an estimated 900 ºC.

Titanium metal is highly resistant to corrosion. It is unaffected by atmospheric air, moisture and sea water, allowing many of its industrial applications. The metal burns incandescently in air at about 1200 ºC, forming titanium dioxide. The metal also burns on contact with liquid oxygen. It combines with nitrogen at about 800 ºC, forming the nitride and producing heat and light. Titanium reacts with all halogens at high temperatures. It is soluble in hot concentrated sulfuric acid, forming sulfate, and with hydrofluoric acid, forming fluoride.

Elemental titanium is found in plants, animals, eggs and milk. Its alloys have wide industrial applications, as they possess high tensile strength, are lightweight, and can withstand extreme temperatures. They are often used in the construction of aircraft and missiles. They have also been used in medical prostheses, orthopedic and dental implants, dental and endodontic instruments and files, dental implants, jewelry and mobile phones.

Properties of Titanium

Name Titanium 
Symbol Ti 
Atomic number 22 
Atomic weight 47.867 
Standard state Solid at 298 °K
CAS Registry ID 7440-32-6 
Group in periodic table 4 
Group name None 
Period in periodic table 4 
Block in periodic table d-block 
Color Silvery metallic 
Classification Metallic 
Melting point 1610 +/- 10 °C
Boiling point 3287 °C
Thermal conductivity 21.9 W/(m·K) at 298.2 °K
Electrical resistivity 42.0 µΩ·cm at 20 °C 
Electronegativity 1.5 
Specific heat 0.54 kJ/kg K
Heat of vaporization 425 kJ·mol-1
Heat of fusion 18.7 kJ·mol-1
Density of solid 4.54 g/cm3
Electron configuration [Ar]3d24s2 
Atomic radius 1.47 Å 
Ionic radius Ti3+: 0.67 Å and Ti4+: 0.61 Å (coordination number 6)
Oxidation states  +2, +3, +4 

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Vanadium (V)

Stable isotopes of vanadium available from ISOFLEX

Isotope Z(p) N(n) Atomic Mass Natural Abundance Enrichment Level Chemical Form
V-50  23  27  49.947163 0.25%  >55.00% Oxide
V-51  23  28  50.943964 99.75%  >99.90% Oxide

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V

Vanadium was discovered in 1801 by both Manuel del Rio and Nils Sefström. Its name derives from that of Vanadis, the goddess of beauty in Scandinavian mythology.

Vanadium is a bright, silvery-white, ductile solid with a body-centered cubic structure. It is insoluble in water, dilute sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid and alkalis. It is resistant to corrosion but soluble in nitric, hydrofluoric and concentrated sulfuric acids. It can act as either a metal or a nonmetal, and it forms a variety of complex compounds and is nontoxic as metal.

Vanadium forms four oxides: the light gray monoxide, VO; the blue-black dioxide, VO2; the black sesquioxide, V2O3; and the orange-red pentoxide, V2O5. It also combines with chlorine on heating, producing three known chlorides: the green dichloride, VCl2; the pink trichloride, VCl3; and the brown-red tetrachloride, VCl4.

Among its industrial applications, vanadium is added to steel for high resistance to oxidation and to stabilize carbide. The foil is used for cladding titanium to steel, and a vanadium-gallium alloy is used in making superconductive magnets.

Properties of Vanadium

Name Vanadium 
Symbol V 
Atomic number 23 
Atomic weight 50.9415 
Standard state Solid at 298 °K 
CAS Registry ID 7440-62-2 
Group in periodic table 5 
Group name None 
Period in periodic table 4 
Block in periodic table d-block 
Color Silvery gray metallic 
Classification Metallic 
Melting point 1910 °C
Boiling point 3380 °C
Vaporization point 3407 °C
Thermal conductivity 30.7 W/(m·K) at 298.2 °K
Electrical resistivity 18.1 µΩ·cm at 0 °C 
Electronegativity 1.6
Specific heat 0.39 kJ/kg K 
Heat of vaporization 453 kJ·mol-1
Heat of fusion 22.8 kJ·mol-1
Density of solid 5.96 g/cm3
Electron configuration [Ar] 3d34s2 
Atomic radius 1.34 Å 
Ionic radius V2+: 0.79 Å, V3+: 0.64 Å, V4+: 0.58 Å,
and V5+: 0.54 Å (coordination number 6)
Oxidation states  +2, +3, +4, +5 

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Chromium (Cr)

Stable isotopes of chromium available from ISOFLEX

Isotope Z(p) N(n) Atomic Mass Natural Abundance Enrichment Level Chemical Form
Cr-50  24  26  49.946049 4.35%  96.50-99.70%  Metal
Cr-50 24 26 49.946049 4.35% 94.50-99.70% Oxide
Cr-52  24  28  51.940512 83.79%  ≥98.80% Metal
Cr-52 24 28 51.940512 83.79% ≥98.80% Oxide
Cr-53  24  29  52.940653 9.50%  92.80-97.70%  Metal
Cr-53 24 29 52.940653 9.50% 92.80-97.70% Oxide
Cr-54  24  30  53.938885 2.36%  >99.00%  Metal
Cr-54 24 30 53.938885 2.36% >99.00% Oxide

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Cr

Chromium was discovered in 1797 by Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin. It is named for the Greek word chroma, meaning "color," signifying the strong and varied colors of chromium compounds.

Chromium is a hard, brittle, blue-white metal, with a body-centered cubic crystal. It exists in active and passive forms, the latter giving rise to its corrosion resistance due to a thin surface oxide layer that passivates the metal when treated with oxidizing agents. The active form reacts readily with dilute acids to form chromous salts. It is soluble in acids (except nitric) and strong alkalis, but insoluble in water.

Elemental chromium reacts with anhydrous halogens, hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen chloride, forming the corresponding chromium halides. At elevated temperatures in the 600-700 ºC range, chromium reacts with hydrogen sulfide or sulfur vapor, forming chromium sulfides. Chromium metal reacts at 600-700 ºC with sulfur dioxide and caustic alkalis. It combines with phosphorus at 800 ºC. Reaction with ammonia at 850 ºC produces chromium nitride. Reaction with nitric oxide forms chromium nitride and chromium oxide.

The most important application of chromium is in the production of steel. High-carbon and other grades of ferro-chromium alloys are added to steel to improve mechanical properties, to increase hardening and to enhance corrosion resistance. Chromium also is added to cobalt- and nickel-based alloys for the same purposes. Refractory bricks are composed of chromium oxides and are used in roofs of open hearths, sidewalls of electric furnaces, vacuum apparati and copper converters. Chromium coatings are applied on the surfaces of other metals — for decorative purposes, to enhance resistance, and to lower the coefficient of friction. Radioactive Chromium-51 is used as a tracer in the diagnosis of blood volume.

Hexavalent chromium compounds have an irritating and corrosive effect on human tissue, resulting in ulcers and dermatitis on prolonged contact. Tolerance for chromium dust and fume is 0.5 mg/m3 of air. Hexavalent chromium is also a known carcinogen and is moderately toxic and corrosive to skin. Inhalation of Cr6+ dust or mist can cause perforation of the nasal septum, lung irritation, and congestion of the respiratory tract.

Properties of Chromium

Name Chromium 
Symbol Cr 
Atomic number 24 
Atomic weight 51.996 
Standard state Solid at 298 °K 
CAS Registry ID 7440-47-3 
Group in periodic table 6 
Group name None 
Period in periodic table 4 
Block in periodic table d-block 
Color Silvery metallic 
Classification Metallic 
Melting point 1875 °C
Boiling point 2672 °C
Thermal conductivity 93.9 W/(m·K) at 298.2 °K
Electrical resistivity 12.9 µΩ·cm at 0 °C 
Electronegativity 1.6 
Specific heat 448 J/kg K
Heat of vaporization 339 kJ·mol-1
Heat of fusion 20.5 kJ·mol-1
Density of solid  7.14 g/cm3
Electron configuration [Ar]3d54s1 
Atomic radius 1.27 Å 
Oxidation states  -2, -1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6

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